Stimuli Sensitive Polymers Types and Applications

Stimuli Sensitive Polymers Types and Applications The stimuli sensitive polymers have proved its applicability in forming hydro-gels [1], drug delivery[2] and target specificity[3]. Some stimuli sensitive polymers occur in nature likeeg, chitosan, cellulose, xyloglucan and many of them are routinely synthesized like, poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm) and co-polymers of PNIPAAm[4]. Nature has designed complex structures in response to various external stimuli. For example, the nano-composite structure of collagen fibrils in sea cucumber alters stiffness of its inner dermis[5]. This alteration of connective tissue is reversible, which acts as a defense mechanism[6, 7]. Capadona etal.,synthesized a chemo-responsive polymeric nano-composite structure, which mimics the response of collagen fibrils when exposed to similar physiological conditions. This polymeric nano-composite is based on ethylene oxide-epichlorohydrin copolymer on to which rigid nanofiber network of cellulose was assimilated [8]. Structure of cellulose whiskers, ethylene oxide-epichlorohydrin and polyvinyl acetate matrix polymer. Cellulose whiskers was isolated from tunicate cellulose pulp by sulfuric acid hydrolysis[9].Study of nanocompositeisbased on a rubber like ethylene oxide–epichlorohydrin (1:1) copolymer (EO-EPI) into which arigid cellulose nanofiber network was assimilated [9]. Naturally derived stimuli sensitive polymers have inherent properties like biocompatibility, efficient degradation of byproducts and specific biological interactions, these polymers have limitations like limited availability, batch to batch variation resulting in composition, poor mechanical strength as compared to synthetic stimuli sensitive polymers. Naturally derived stimuli sensitive polymers like chitosan, a polysaccharide, which is not stimuli sensitive but could be made stimuli sensitive by mixing with glycerophosphate, other examples are cellulose derivatives like methyl cellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose[10]. A list of naturally derived stimuli sensitive polymers along with chemical structures is mention in table 1. 1.1 Stimuli responsive polymers Synthetic polymers have proved there applicability as therapeutic agent in drug delivery. These polymers showbetter pharmacokinetic property with greater ability for tissue targeting. The synthetic polymershows response when stimulated by external stimuli hence, they are called smart polymer or stimuli responsive polymer [15]. The stimuli-responsive polymer works on the principle of identification, evaluation of external signal and then by changing its structural conformation[16].These stimuli are classified as physical (temperature, light, electrical field), chemical (pH,ion, redox)[17], and biological responses.This results in change in a conformation, alteration in partition coefficient or solubility, drug release or more than one change at same time[18]. Physical responsive polymers Some polymers respond to physical stimuli like temperature, light, electrical field, magnetic field,etc.Polymers which become insoluble on heating, have lower critical solution temperature (LCST) like, PNIPAM [19], and those which become soluble on heating have upper critical solution temperature (UCST) like, poly (2-phenyl-2-oxazoline) (PPhOx) [20]. Temperature sensitive polymers Thermo-responsive polymers utilize small changein temperature to cause macroscopic alteration in polymer material [21]. Various types of thermo-responsive fluorescent polymers like a) PNIPAAmb) PNIPAAm-fluorescent labeled c)PNIPAAm-co-butyl methacrylate-fluorescent labeled, a hydrophobic co-polymer butyl methacrylate (BMA) was used to lower LCST to a precise temperature d) PNIPAAm-co-DMAPAAm-fluorescent labeled] (Figure. 2), N,N-dimethylaminopropylacrylamide(DMAPAAm) causes increase in LCST throughhydrophilization of polymeric chain,where synthesized, which shows thermo selective cellular uptake, enables determination of normal and pathological cell[21]. Light sensitive polymers The light sensitive polymers undergo photochromism, in which, an reversible chemical transformation occurs between two isomeric forms of same structure after absorption of light[22]. Absorption of light leads to photochromism which results alteration in absorption spectra[23]. Pericyclic reaction, dissociation process, cis-trans isomerization, electron transfer(oxidation-reduction) and intramolecular hydrogen transfer or group transfer are the mechanisms involved in it[24]. A reversible contraction and expansions in shape and volumes of photochromic light crystal elastomers (LCE) in response to light stimulation.These LCE filmscontainpoly(siloxane) as main chain and cross-linkedchromo-thermicazobenzene, this film was placed on solid support, which helps maintaining temperature to 85Â °c. 1.1.2 Chemical responsive polymers Polymer which exhibits change in configuration or which responds to chemical stimuli like pH, ion and other stimuli are known as chemical responsive polymers like, poly(methylacrylate)[25]. 1.1.2.1 pH responsive polymers pH responsive polymers contain pendant reactive groups which when are cross-linked with other polymer forming hydrogel shows response to stimulus like pH [25]. In recent years, muchwork has been exploredon co-polymerization of pH and temperature sensitive monomers[17, 26]. Graft co-polymers were synthesized to show temperature and pH sensitivity. A side chain temperature sensitive polymer (Figure 4.), the amino terminal ofNIPAAm was graftedon a carboxyl group of pH sensitive backbone polymer, like poly(acetic acid) (PAAc), in the presence of dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC) and methanol byusing coupling method[26]. Stimuli sensitive polymer-dye conjugation Dyes or indicatorsare used to sense or react to particular stimuli like pH and temperature [27]. Some indicator changes color in H+ and OH ion solution due to which they are use as pH sensitive dyes and those which changes color by deflection in temperature are use as temperature sensitive dyes [27]. A list of thermo-chromic polymer-dye conjugations are shown in table 2. The novel chromogenic polymer gel network was synthesized by mixing poly(alkoxy) derivative with bromothymol blue, which yields transparent green gel (Figure 5.), at 33Â °c, green gel turns intolight yellow gel with gradual increase in temperature[29]. In table 2, list of different chromogenic polymer gel networks arementioned.Poly(alkoxy) gel network was used to form complex with other dyes like, nitrazin yellow, where, color of gel network changes from blue to green. Similarly, for chlorophenol red, where color changes from red to yellow PVA-borax-cresol, phenol substituted dye (cresol) was conjugated with PVA-borax complex to obtain thermochromic hydrogel. Other example, PVA-borax-2,6-diphenyl-4-(2,4,6-triphenylpyridinio)phenolate (DTPP) forms reversible thermochromic hydrogel. Such system shows color change and increase in absorption by a gradual increase of temperature. The absorption spectrum of DTPP explains dependency of absorbance on temperature causes bathochromic shift of absorption maximum [28]. InBorax-PVA-DTPP network,DTPP was embedded in PVA-borax gel matrix, boric acid is cross linked to PVA polymer that is, borate ions reacts with hydroxyl group present on PVA to form monodiol-borate complex and didiol-borate complex [30]. Another example of gel containing dye composed of two polymers (PVA and polyether) includes addition of zwitterionicsurfactant, which is a dipolar surfactant,was selected to avoid strong ionic interaction with anionic dye. This surfactant, like, sulfobetain forms aggregates above its critical micelle concentration therefore, it can influence U.V-absorption spectra of a water soluble dye like phenol red as shown in [31]. The dye can also be conjugated with dendrimer to enhance imaging applications and for metal ion probing[32]. For example, generation 5 poly(amidoamine) [G5(PAMAM)] dendrimercontaining 128 surface sites which can incorporate 0 to7 dyes like, 6-carboxytetramethylrhodamine succinimdyl ester (TAMRA), fluorescein. Acetylation yields complete conjugate of dendrimer and dye [33]. nano sized stimuli sensitive polymers have been proved to show response to external signaling [34]. pH sensitive system was prepared by the combination of two modified pH sensitive indicator dyes like, N-fluoresceinylacrylamide (FA), and N-acrylamide-NÂ ´-rhodamine B thiourea (Rh B) (Figure. 11).These two functional monomeric dyes were copolymerized with acrylamide and methylenebis(acrylamide) in w/o micro-emulsion to form dye conjugated poly(acrylamide nanoparticles [35]. Synthesis ofN-fluoresceinylacrylamide- N-acrylamide-Nˈ-rhodamine B thiourea (FA-Rh B)copolymerized nanoparticles. The two functional monomeric dyes FA and Rh Bwere co-polymerized with acrylamide and methylenebis acrylamide in w/o micro-emulsion [35]. Fluorescence emission spectra of polyacrylamide nanoparticle conjugated with fluorescein and rhodamine dye. The fluorescence emission intensity of Rh B remains unchanged with increasing pH whereas that of FA increases. An amine functionalized RAFT co-polymer poly {N-(2-hydroxypropyl) methacrylamide-bN-[3-(dimethylamino)propyl] methacrylate} {poly (HPMA258b-DMAPMA13)} was labeled by fluorescent dye like, 6-(fluorescein-5-carboxamido)hexanoic acid, succinimidyl ester (5-SFX) using anhydrous DMF along with triethanolamine which catalysis the reaction [36]. The primary amine of poly(HPMA258-b-DMAPMA13) is more reactive than tertiary thiol group this allows conjugation of 5-SFX with poly(HPMA258-b-DMAPMA13Â ­). ÃŽ ²-cyclodextrinis cyclic oligosaccharide [37], which has been proved for large number of applications like, increasing solubility [38], detection of compounds [39], immobilization of toxic compounds [40], drug release [41] etc. Some dyes were conjugated in complexing agent like an azo dye inside ÃŽ ²-cyclodextrincavity.Azo dye like methyl red indicator shows color change from yellow to red as pH decreases, this is because of the protonation of azo group (Figure 14.). Methyl red (MR) shows yellow color when complexes with ÃŽ ²-CD even in acidic pH 4.The complex was formed in dimethylacetoamide by using an condensing agent like, dicyclohexylcarbodiimide, it becomes useful in detection of neutral species which will act as guest inside MR-ÃŽ ²-CD complex and will replace MR, which changes its color to red [42]. Role of polymer-dye conjugation in cellular uptake Cellular uptake consist of endocytosis process in which extracellular compounds are captured by plasma membrane forming vesicles. Along with endocytosis there are other methods like, receptor mediated pathway, phagocytosis and micro-pinocytosis[43]. The plasma membrane of a eukaryotic cell has a barrier which allows small and uncharged molecules to pass through it[44].The nano sized polymers, despiteplasma membrane barrier, can irreversibly interact with lipid membraneby insertion of dangling side chains into the hydrophobic region of cell, which can be explained by molecular dynamics[45].Polymer like 2-methcryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine (MPC) was copolymerized with n-butyl methacrylate (BMA) forming poly(MPC-co-BMA)[46],thecovalentlylabeledrhodamine Btopoly(MPC-co-BMA) (rhoPMB)was synthesized using free radical polymerization method with perbutyl-ND as an initiator.RhoPMB30 was distributed inside live HepG2 cell (a human hepatocellular liver carcinoma cell line). Natural polymer is applicable in biomedical, environmental science and agricultural field like, hydrophobically modified glycol chitosan (HGC) that can form stable nanoparticles. HGC shows prolonged blood circulation period when the particle size is controlled. It accumulates selectively inside tumor cell when administered systemically [47] and applicable in delivering various therapeutic agents like, peptides, genes and small anticancer drugs [43]. The polymer conjugate probes are applicable for penetration inside the membrane of tumor cell for treatment[48], detection[49] or diagnosis[50, 51]. Further study for the conjugation ofpolymer and pH sensitive dye to form a reusable system which will sense or exhibit color change at different pH ranges.

Multimedia Applications

Multimedia Applications MULTIMEDIA APPLICATIONS 1.0 THE PROJECT OVERVIEW v Develop an interactive animated movie that contains specified title and story. You are given the freedom of choosing the titles specified in Section 4.0. The focus of this multimedia application is to help the general public to be aware or to be educated about the current issue, or fields of interest you have chosen. The animated movie that you are yet to develop is to be used as an informative or educational tool. The scope and contents of the title chosen are to be entirely determined by the students. 2.0 OBJECTIVES OF THIS PROJECT: v Develop the students practical ability to implement and document multimedia application. v Introduce student to the current technical issues in the area of multimedia. 3.0 LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of this project, the students should be able to: Ø Develop multimedia presentation relating to a specific topic using the multimedia tools. Ø Distinguish the difference between effective and ineffective use of multimedia. Ø Have an impressive portfolio piece, and a thorough understanding of multimedia fundamentals. 4.0 PROJECT TITLE: v List of project topics for you to choose are as follows: Title Albert Einstein Stephen Hawking The life of DaVincci President Lincoln President Kennedy President George Washington Thomas Edinson Apollo 13 Political system in any country French Revolution Greatest Invention in Malaysia Prime Minister in any country Robot Terrorism Richest man in the world About the great artist, Picasso Russian Revolution Story about police Van Gogh Micheal Angelo Queen Elizabeth of England Human cloning Any Fairy Tales The greatest artists in Malaysia William Shakespeare Nielson Mandela Story about diamond The greatest literature of England Story about firemen Story about FBI Living beings in the sea Living beings in the desert Great Philosopher in the world 5.0 TYPE: v Individual work 6.0 REGISTRATION v You need to register the chosen titles with your lecturer, and get these approved. A proposal form of the project chosen is to be handed to me three weeks from today (submit on or before 18th October 2009; Total number of pages: half page) 7.0 PROJECT DESCRIPTION v Your application must have significant use of the following elements so that you get some practice with them: Element 1 Text and animated text 2 Graphic 3 Audio 4 Animation v All elements mentioned above might not be able to be covered in lecture before the submission due date, therefore you must learn yourself first so that you can apply them on your application. No doubt there will be further clarifications as the days progress! 8.0 DELIVERABLES: v The documents (project report in printed form; Assignment 1) and Multimedia Application (animated movie) in the form of a CD-ROM (assignment 2). 8.1 MULTIMEDIA APPLICATION IN CD FORM: v The completed animated movie must be compiled into an (*.exe) executable file and burned into a CD-ROM. Do not submit some other format like *.html, *.dir, etc. v The CD-ROM should also consist of raw media files (e.g. *.jpg, *.gif, *.psd, .mov etc.) and all Flash working files (*.fla). v The running time of your movie should not less than 1 minutes 8.2 DOCUMENTS: PROJECT REPORT v As part of your assessment, you will have to submit the project report in printed form which include the followings: * Table of contents * Acknowledgement Section * Objectives of your animated movie * Targeted users background * Targeted users requirements * Concepts art and character design * Abstract * Application structure * Storyboard * Creative and unique features in your movie * References (Use Harvard Naming Convention; Refer notes below) Note: v You may source pictures and information from the Internet. If you have accessed the Internet, reference the resources used carefully in your document. v All references must be made using the Harvard Naming Convention as shown below: The theory was first propounded in 1970 (Larsen, A.E. 1971), but since then has been refuted; M.K. Larsen (1983) is among those most energetic in their opposition†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. List of references at the end of your document must be specified in the following format: Larsen, A.E. 1971, A Guide to the Aquatic Science Literature, McGraw-Hill, London. Larsen, M.K. 1983, British Medical Journal (Online), Available World Wide Web: URL: http://libinfor.ume.maine.edu/acquatic.htm (Accessed 19 November 1995) Further information on other type of citation is available in Li, X. and Crane (1993), Electronic Style: A Guide to Citing Electronic Information, Meckler, Westport. v Total number of pages for the documents is in the range of 20 to 40 pages 9.0 PROJECT ASSESSMENT CRITERIA v Criteria for assessment will be based on: Ø Documentation (Assignment 1): Criteria Marks Allocated 1 Objectives 10 2 Target users background and their requirements 20 3 Concepts Art and character design 20 4 Storyboard (Inclusive of abstract, application structure and layout of application) 30 5 Creative and unique features in your movie 15 6 Originality (Reflected from Referencing of materials and Summary of what you have created or what effects have you made on multimedia elements) 5 Total 100 Ø Implementation (Assignment 2): Criteria Marks Allocated 1 Title and content: * Implementation suitable for intended audience? * Interesting? * Unique? * Clear? * Originality 5 2 Level of originality and innovation of graphics: * Amount of graphics self developed * Amount of graphics extracted directly from external source. * Amount of graphics extracted from external source and further innovated (like adding special effects added on the graphics) * Graphics quality * Quality of effects and innovation 20 3 Animations: * Amount of animations self developed * Amount of animations extracted directly from external source. * Amount of animations extracted from external source and further innovated (like adding special effects added on the graphics) * Depth and quality of animations 20 4 Sound: * Sound effect used? * Voice recorded? * Music used? * Sound quality 20 5 Technicality: * Level of interactivity (full interactivity? Or merely click and display) * Special Effects done on the system * Use of ActionScripts (ActionScript is strongly encouraged to use. If you have done so, remember to put the full script in your document. However, absent of ActionScript will not deduct your marks) * Full screen? * Able to run smoothly? 20 6 System development (compliant with the documents e.g. storyboard submitted earlier) 5 7 Presentation: * Professional style * Good use of language * Capability in answering questions addressed by lecturer * Proper referencing and citations. 10 Total 100% v Documentation contributes 40% and Implementation contributes 60% of the overall marks. 10.0 FRONT COVER OF PROJECT: v All reports must be prepared with a front cover. A protective transparent plastic sheet can be placed in front of the report to protect the front cover. The front cover should be presented with the following details: a) Names. b) Intake code. c) Subject. d) Project Title. e) Date Assigned (the date the report was handed out). f) Date Completed (the date the report is due to be handed in). 11.0 PLANNING: v You are advised to analyse your audience and survey the existing materials before starting out. Then, brainstorm, flowchart your ideas to see the general flow and finally, develop. Planning saves you a tot of heartache and headache later on. 12.0 MULTIMEDIA TOOLS v You have the options of developing the multimedia application using one of the following multimedia tools for your project: Element Tools 1 Text and animated text Win Word, Notepad 2 Graphic Editing Photoshop 3 Audio Any Sound editing tools like Audacity 4 Video (Optional) Windows Movie Maker 5 Animation Macromedia Suite (Flash, Director) 13.0 ACADEMIC INTEGRITY v You are expected to maintain the utmost level of academic integrity during the duration of the course. v Plagiarism is a serious offence and will be dealt with according to APIITs regulations on plagiarism. 7 Multimedia Applications in-course assessment handout

Mentally Ill People :: essays research papers fc

Mentally Ill People People who are mentally ill and have committed a crime should not be court ordered to take medications. One reason why they shouldn’t is because of the side effects this medicine may cause. The second reason is because they might end up becoming addicted to this medicine. And the third reason is because taking the medication do not solve the reason why this person committed the crime it just sedates the person but the illness is still there. Nowadays over a 100 million people are taking a tranquilizer. One of the most common tranquilizers that are being used is Valium. Valium is the most profitable drug in history and it is used to treat anxiety. People taking Valium are about five and nine times more likely to get involved in accidents at work. Some of the side effects Valium cause are apathy, low blood pressure, lack of coordination, impaired intellectual functioning, loss of weight and it has also been related to violent outbursts. Valium is the most abused drug in the United States. Also the Drug Enforcement Administration has reported that people taking Valium are more often involved in drug related deaths and emergencies than heroin, marijuana or alcohol put together. Long-term use may cause atrophy of the brain. Also of 19.000 live births in the US found that birth defects were five times higher in babies whose mothers have been taking this medicine. After fifteen minutes of taking Valium people feel calm, relieved and secure but between doses they become fidgety. Taking Valium or court order someone to take Valium is not helping the individual who instead of talking out his/her problems and expressing his/her feelings these are just being repressed or ignored. After a while these individuals become addicted and end up with more troubles than the ones they had before taking anything. Mental illness was once considered to be a personal failing but now scientists know that is just a chemical imbalance. It is also known that stress and other factors may contribute to a person’s mental illness. Also it is proved that when people with mentally illness are more willing to cooperate if they are not forced into getting treatment.

Memory and History in the Works of Michael Ondaatje :: Biography Biographies Essays

Memory and History in the Works of Michael Ondaatje In the Canadian social context, the issue of identity can be a fraught one, and the question of what it means to be Canadian is notoriously sticky, particularly given the wide variety of social and cultural backgrounds claimed by Canadians and the heterogeneity of their own experiences. This paper deals with the ways in which the Canadian writer Michael Ondaatje works with issues of understanding and accessing memories and histories outside of one’s personal lived experience. Ondaatje’s The English Patient opens with an epigraph culled from the minutes of a Geographical Society meeting in London in the early nineteen-forties. It reads: â€Å"Most of you, I am sure, remember the tragic circumstances of the death of Geoffrey Clifton at Gilf Kebir, followed later by the disappearance of his wife, Katherine Clifton, which took place during the 1939 desert expedition in search of Zerzura. â€Å"I cannot begin this meeting tonight without referring very sympathetically to those tragic occurrences. ‘The lecture this evening†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The passage introduces a number of key themes in the text, and is worth dealing with at some length. The first issue I want to examine is the opening line. Memory is arguably the most important issue at play in this novel, and its positioning here draws attention to its recurring significance throughout the text. The context of its usage is of particular interest. A later passage notes the attitude of disinterested objectivity, of scientific detachment, that pervades the lectures’ setting, and the uneasiness of the speakers as they struggle to readjust to the urban and urbane environment. ‘Someone will introduce the talk’, it notes, ‘and someone will give thanks †¦ [t]he years of preparation and research and fund-raising are never mentioned in these oak rooms †¦ losses in extreme heat or windstorm are announced with minimal eulogy. All human and financial behaviour lies on the far side of the issue being discussed — which is the earthâ€℠¢s surface and its â€Å"interesting geographical problems†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (134). The tension between the impersonal detachment of the lecture’s atmosphere and the terminology in the epigraph is one that operates through much of Ondaatje’s work. That tension is in the text that holds together two opposing forces — personal, lived memory, and cultural memory. Susan Sontag, in her recent book Regarding the Pain of Others, makes the somewhat contentious claim that ‘there is no such thing as collective memory †¦ all memory is individual, unreproducible — it dies with each person.

Recognizing the Fireside Poets

Poetry characterized by its metrical form is one of the most well-liked forms of literature. It served as a creative expression of one’s thoughts and emotions. There are poems that became famous and had been preserved and past down through generations. The American poetry had established its own identity from British poetry by varying the rhythms, forms, diction and tone. During the 1600 the history of American poetry formally began. During that time poems were mostly written and based on the British language standard. First there are the Puritan and Satirical poets that dominated earlier the American literature.Later they were replaced by Revolutionary Era Poets and even African American poets. When the 19th century arrived there was optimism for major achievement in poetry. During this time the Fireside poet’s goals and works emerged and made significant impact in the world of American poetry. The Fireside poets later were recognized as the first group of American poe ts that had successfully competed British poets in terms of popularity. Fireside Poets: Goals and Works Who were these so called â€Å"Fireside poets† and why are they called in that name?The Fireside Poets are composed of five persons namely Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882), William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878), James Russell Lowell (1819-1891), Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809-1894) and lastly John Greenleaf Whittier (1807-1892). They are given this title of Fireside Poets because most of them have used the image of the hearth or the fireplace where the family gathered together to read stories and learn their poems. The goal of the Fireside Poets is to create poems that were based on traditions but can also be of equal level in terms of quality, breadth and creativity of content to that of the British poetry.Their poems are highly notable for wisdom and flexibility in lines and themes. They preferred conventional forms over experimentation in poetic styles and had often used American legends, scenes of American life and even politics as themes in their poems. The careful attention given to rhymes or the strict metrical rhythm made their works popular for memorization and recitation activities in schools and even at homes. Among the five Fireside Poets the most popular then was Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. One of his well known compositions is the Song of Hiawatha. Aside from these he was also a well known translator in several languages.He became the first American to be honored with a bust at Westminster Abbey’s Poet Corner. Second to him was William Cullen Bryant who became famous for his work entitled Thanatopis, a poem that recognized death as the great equalizer of life. He worked as a lawyer and editor of New York Evening Post. Third is James Russell Lowell known for Biglow Papers, included among the American tradition of long satirical poems. Next one was Oliver Wendell Holmes a medical doctor that composed the poems Old Ironsides and The C hambered Nautilus. Lastly was John Greenleaf Whittier known for his poems Snow Bound and Legends of New England. ConclusionThe Fireside Poet’s greatest ambition was to be able to carve out their names, established their identity and be of equal to their British counterparts. Their poems have been a lasting legacy among the collections of American poetry. Although they are traditionalist they had been the first to made significant contributions in the area of American poetry. They have been able to use their poems to fight for a cause, portray the way of life or cultures, and share their imaginations and experiences to their readers. The Fireside Poets no longer exist but their compositions continue to live and inspire the new generation of poets.

Outline and assess the contribution of the social psychoanalytic perspective to the study of family relationships

Rooted in how family is defined are precepts about what is considered a social norm, or acceptable behaviour. It tells people what’s perceived as a family and what is not. Within the word family are individual inherited social, historical and cultural values. The Oxford English Dictionary defines a family as the servants of a house, or the household or everyone who lives in a house or under one head and finally as a â€Å"group of persons consisting of the parents and their children, whether actually living together or not†. The family evolves and changes as the society in which we live changes.Does the â€Å"traditional†, heterosexual family still exist as the norm? There has been a decline in marriage, increase in cohabitation and children born into single parent families. There has also been an increase in divorce, incline of compound families and recognition of same sex relationships, marriages and parenting. The multiplicity in human relationships makes it p roblematic for psychologists to define family or forecast patterns of behaviour. Individual-society dualism refers to one of the interrogative themes in social psychology.The challenge of how individuals and society are associated is both complex but also greatly controversial, as it forms the basis of many political thinking, values and viewpoints and the formation of social policies. Traditional psychological theories and research into the structure of families mainly focused on the realm of developmental psychology. Much research centred on mother-child interactions with few studies of father-child interactions (O’Brien 2005). Traditional research centred on the shortcomings and problems within the family structure, such as incest and eating disorders (Cawson et al., 2000) and looks for origins of breakdowns between members of the family.Traditional research viewed the individuals as being separate from society and unaffected by it or as over socialised beings and as such was found to be constrictive in its use. â€Å"Families and close personal relationships give us a vital framework through which we come to make sense of ourselves and the world† (Helen Lucey 2007 pg 66 cited in Social Psychology Matters). From birth the family generally is the main source of influence in the development of physical, social and emotional well being and as such is worthy of further research and debate.Recent perspectives such as the discursive and psychoanalytic perspective have gone a step further to take account of both individual and society and looks at how the individual is influenced by as well as from society such as culture and family history (Lucey, 2007 Open University, DVD 1). For the purpose of this essay the main focus will be on the dynamics of family relationships providing a critical evaluation of theory and research into close relationships specifically sibling relationships to demonstrate these complexities from a psychoanalytic point of view .The concept that our actions and interactions are relatively the creation of unreasonable and unconscious processes tackles previous psychological ideologies about qualities common to humanity. The majority of theories on families, as well as social policies and practices suppose that people are influenced by sound motives that they usually know what their behaviours are and motives for them and have power over their lives.In comparison psychoanalysis and the more recent social psychoanalytical theories or perspectives propose that conscious thought only ‘scratches the surface’ and is in the domain of extensive unconscious processes, by which the majority of our internalised self lives within, that addresses this notion of an unconscious tool effective in controlling unconscious anxiety, known as splitting, projection and projective identification. The psychoanalytic perspective can be viewed as responding to the need of a more holistic explanation of families and deve lopment of self. Previously siblings were marginalised.When we look and Freud’s theory for example they were only noticed in negative scenarios, murderous rivalry and jealousy. The focus would be on the evolving of individual subjectivity and the psyche and now psychoanalytic theorists are beginning to view siblings as internalised individuals in children’s lives (Lucey 2007) Some of the approaches fundamentals tend to overlap with approaches such as discursive and phenomenological perspectives, but differentiates from these schools of thought in psychology and theories of social sciences by its underlying notions of a powerful subjective conscious and unconscious.As a result, research into the family from a social psychoanalytic approach may well transcend the individual-society dualism. In direct opposite to the discursive approach the psychoanalytical approach views the family structure/makeup as changeable and influenced by society, parents, individuals and culture . People’s behaviours are not viewed as existing in isolation or as separate entities, but must be viewed as part of and within the wider cultural economic and social world, which influences, effects and guides individual’s behaviours and as a result has different outcomes for relationships.Lucey 2007 argues that siblings are unique individuals who have in common their genetic makeup and share a majority of social aspects with each other and as such could provide a window into the fundamentals of close relationships. The psychoanalytic approach takes the stance that older siblings are just as important in the development of self as the parents. Siblings evolve into role models (ego-ideals) in which they establish their superego from perceived behaviours (Mitchell 2003).Society’s social order dictates an individual’s choice which is clearly evidenced in Edward and Lucey’s 2006 research which followed five Bangladeshi sisters living in the United Kin gdom. Azra who is the eldest sibling is clearly shown to be regarded as a role model to her younger sisters and an example of how they should behave and the choices they should make in terms of how they live their lives in order to obtain the ‘respect’ and acceptance within the cultural community to which they belong.The theme of individual-society dualism is displayed as the girls in the research have autonomy to make specific choices in their lives. However this is within the constraints of the Muslim cultural structures. Habiba the second eldest feels pressured to study hard to achieve the success expected and avoid letting her sister down. The unconscious introjection and projection of Azra's perceived purity, goodness and conforming behaviour. Azra’s persona acted as a guide for the sisters behaviour and accomplishments.The notion of her reproof or displeasure in their failure in anyway is evidently important and ensues in splitting, dividing the good from t he bad, and the agreeable and un-agreeable. The individual-society dualism is reflective in the girl’s social surroundings and the relation between culture, community and social factors. ` Sabina, the third eldest sister doesn’t view herself as an individual but refers to her reputation as ‘a family’. Her personal identity is viewed as the family as a whole.Asian cultures like theirs are guided by ethical and moral principles within the close knit communities they live with strict cultural values and seek approval from each other and as such the need to achieve acceptance is very great (Heinnink 1999). It is clear that the five sister’s choices are restricted by the unconscious self and social influences. The girls however do take an operative role in the creating of their identity on an individual level, as family and as members of their community.There is an assumed existence of defences such as projection to help resolve any anxieties or conflict experienced Thomas Ogden (1982). In the social psychoanalytic approach anxiety is viewed as unavoidable and ‘normal’ and core to the evolvement of an individual’s personality (Freud 1936). It is important to note the idea of agency and how much choice an individual exerts and how much is governed by the structures, groups and cultures to which individuals belong within society.For example during an individual’s school years they have no control over which school they attend this is governed by societal structures and parental choice to a limited degree and friends are usually chosen from the class the individual is affiliated to, referred to as propinquity effect (Bersheid and Reis 1988). Therefore proximity, teacher and school dictate which group you will belong and therefore choice of friendships formed. So how much is based on individual choice and how much is dictated by the society, group psychic processes.However the propinquity effect doesn’ t fully explain about interpersonal attraction or why we become friends and other factors must influence our choice such as culture, values and interests for example. Further research is required to highlight features of close relationships. The social psychoanalytic perspectives in the study of families and research into sibling relationships put forward a viable means of comprehending family dynamics and the implications of individual as agency and the influence of social forces such as attachments, race, culture and social and how these forces shape the family and relationships within it.The psychoanalytic research into siblings highlights how the inner psyche and social life are intertwined, and how the older sibling can become part of ‘critical inner voice’ that siblings will use as a measure for their own desire and impulses (Lucey DD307 Guide). In conclusion therefore the writer is inclined to support and agree with the psychoanalytical perspective and accept tha t it is important to take account of a multitude of interacting factors such as individual, historical, cultural and social contributions to the study of the family.Close relationships are formed as a result of the individual as well as social world to which they belong. The problems in the definition of the family highlights the need for a more complete understanding linking theories in social psychology and possibly sociological social psychology which studies societal processes and individuals within the culture and structures in which they live and psychological social psychology which addresses the role of the family and child development during early socialisation.If social psychology is to effect change in political thinking and social policies which are important especially in the field of social work if working practices are to change, further research needs to be undertaken, due to the fact that sibling relationships are the longest lasting that the majority of individuals will experience. Longitudinal studies into sibling relationships could provide further information into how family dynamics change over time, providing possible models of studying other forms of close relationships.

Japanese History Essay

The Taisho era, which occurred from 1912 to 1926, is part of Japan’s history. This era was regarded as the period of great righteousness. Emperor Taisho reigned during this time. This time was also considered as democratic compared to other eras after it which were characterized as chaotic and military- oriented. During the Taisho Period the new emperor’s health weakened. This prompted the shift of authority from the old oligarchic, which was ruled by â€Å"elder statesmen†, to the Diet, which was composed of democratic parties. This is why during this era, liberal movement which is knowned as the â€Å"Taisho Democracy† evolved in Japan. After the death of the Meiji Emperor, the Crown Prince Yoshihito took the thrown. This marks the beginning of the Taisho Period. The period begun with political crisis, this interfered with other political negotiations. Misunderstandings brought down the Seiyukai Party in the cabinet. The public was angry and demands to terminate the genro politics or the old oligarchic system. They were supported by another party, the Saionjai. New party, the Rikken Doshikai won against the Seiyukai Party in the House. After World War I, Japan experienced unparalleled prosperity. Japan participated in the peace treaty of Versailles during 1919. They were also part of the â€Å"Big Five† which was a new order recognized internationally. Members of â€Å"Big Five† are countries which have great military and industrial supremacy around the globe. Tokyo, Japan’s capital city received a permanent seat in the League of the Nations Council. Germany’s pacific colonies were also transferred to Japan as Germany loses its rights in Shandong. Truly Japan evolved as an international player in international politics after the war. In September 29, 1918, Hara â€Å"Japanese History† â€Å"page# 2† Takashi, which is from the Saionji Party, was the first ever commoner to become the Prime Minister. The Emperor in Japan will only be the head of the state and not of the government. Different economic and national crises came to him. The public were enchanted with increasing national debts and election laws. The public was disappointed – students, professors, labor movements, including journalists. They were inspired by different schools of thoughts whether communist, socialist or democratic. They conducted massive public demonstrations. After the elections the Seiyukai Party regained the majority. Both communist and socialist parties flourished. This probably made this era more democratic for the public can freely say what they want to the government without fear of military interventions. After sometime, parliamentary system was established. Hara was later on assassinated. After sometime, the Peace Preservation Law was passed. This prohibits any chage in the structure of politics. The disagreements in the Diet results to the introduction of Rikken Minseito – a newly formed coalition of the Seiyu Honto (Seiyukai) and the Kenseikai. This party is committed to promote world peace, democracy and the parliamentary system of government. End of the Era In 1926, Emperor Taisho died and Crown Prince Hirohito assumes the thrown. This ends the Taisho Period. The democratic system of government continued to flourish I Japan during 1920’s. But the next decade, military forces become dominant and the parliamentary system of government was not able to withstand it along with both fiscal and political crises. â€Å"Japanese History† â€Å"page# 3† World War II The Second World War occurred during 1939 to 1945. It is a war between the Allies and the Axis. The Allies was composed mainly by China, France, United Kingdom, Soviet Union and United States. On the other hand, Japan, Italy and Germany were the member of the Axis. After Japan prosper in the postwar and gain political power internationally, Western leaders assumed that Japan is capable of conquering and unite Asia through Emperor Hirohito. In 1937, Japan invaded China with the goal to expand its territory and use its resources. Japanese also invaded the French Indochina. After these invasions the Netherlands, United States, United Kingdom, and Australia, who has stakes in Japan’s colonies, move to prohibit the export of Japan to be shipped to other places. The Western countries ask China for loans in order to have secret military covers. With pressure against it, Japan has no choice but to free its colonies or to declare war to conquer territories. Japan opted to start a war in the Pacific and launch attacks on Malaya, Philippines, Thailand, Hong Kong and Hawaii. China has been under Japan for six years. Pearl Harbor Attack The Japanese military devised an attack in the Hawaii, specifically in Pearl Harbor. The attack was the initial phase of the Japanese in their war against US. The US embargo Japan because it is invading China. The embargo weakened Japan’s Military and economy. Japan wanted the embargo to be lifted by threatening the US for they know that the US does not have enough resources to launch a war. Pearl Harbor is the United States’ naval base and the location of the US’s Pacific Fleet. Japanese wanted to cripple US’s naval operations and attacked Pearl Harbor. The Japanese believed that destroying the US naval base would stop â€Å"Japanese History† â€Å"page# 4† US from fighting into war. The US military forces decoded Japanese code about the attack but it was too late. It was eight in the morning when Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. The attack left more than 3500 American dead. Eighteen ships were badly damaged including eight battleships of the Pacific Fleet. Almost 350 aircrafts were destroyed and more than a thousand people died when the USS Arizona Battleship sunk. On December 8, 1941, the US launched war against Japan. The US dropped the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima, then on Nagasaki. Later on, Japan Surrendered. References: Erickson, J. , and Dilks, D. (1994). Barbarossa: The Axis and the Allies. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Glantz, David M. (1991). From the Don to the Dnepr: Soviet Offensive Operations, December 1942 – August 1943. London: Cass. Haslam, J. (1992). The Soviet Union and the Threat from the East, 1933 – 41: Moscow, Tokyo, and the Prelude to the Pacific War. London: Macmillan. Harrison, M. ed. (1998). The Economics of World War II: Six Great Powers in International Comparison. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.